The Kyivan Rus state existed from the 9th to the 13th centuries. In its heyday, it was the largest country in Europe, and its rich cultural heritage remains an integral part of Ukrainian national traditions to this day1. 

Kyivan Rus reached its highest level of development under the rule of Princes Volodymyr the Great and Yaroslav the Wise2. During the reign of Volodymyr the Great (978-1015), Christianity became the state religion, and the prince himself was later declared a saint3. Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) was instrumental in promoting culture and education and spreading Christianity4. The prince also came to be known as Europe’s matchmaker: the marriages of his daughters and sons brought together relatives among Europe’s most influential monarchs.

1: Kyivan Rus - The Kyiv Independent 2: Kievan Rus | Medieval State, Europe, Culture & Religion - Britannica 3: Kievan Rus summary - Britannica 4: Kievan Rus | Medieval State, Europe, Culture & Religion - Britannica : Kievan Rus summary - Britannica

Gradually, the Kievan Rus state began to fragment into smaller principalities. After the conquest by Batu Khan (1237-1241) and the devastation of Kiev, the main center of self-government shifted to the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia in the southwestern part of Kievan Rus12.

In the 14th century, the western part of the Kievan Rus state and most of the southern part, including Kyiv, came under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Meanwhile, the Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia was united with Poland in 13403. Following the Union of Lublin in 1569, Ukrainian territories became part of the united Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita)4.

From the 16th century, the role of the Cossacks, who were free peasants, townspeople, and minor nobility, began to increase. The Cossacks lived in the steppes of southern Ukraine, defending the localities from Tatar attacks and later fighting for Ukrainian statehood. The center of Cossack organization was located in the lower Dnipro River area, around the island of Khortytsya, and was known as Zaporizhian Sich.

Over time, Cossacks spread throughout Ukraine. Between 1591 and 1632, there were several uprisings by Cossacks and peasants, which either failed or ended in compromise. Between 1648 and 1657, Cossack troops led by Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky liberated most of Ukraine from Polish rule and established the Cossack state. After Khmelnytsky’s death, a period of wars and internal conflicts began, exploited by both the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Moscow state. Ukraine was divided into Right-bank and Left-bank Ukraine along the Dnipro River, with the latter becoming known as Hetmanshchyna.

One of the hetmans of Right-bank Ukraine, Pylyp Orlyk, drafted the first Ukrainian constitution in 1710, which is also considered one of the first constitutions in Europe.

1: World History Encyclopedia - Kievan Rus 2: The Conversation - Mongol Invasion of Kievan Rus 3: Britannica - Grand Duchy of Lithuania 4: Britannica - Union of Lublin : Encyclopedia of Ukraine - Zaporizhian Sich : Britannica - Bohdan Khmelnytsky : Britannica - Hetmanshchyna : Encyclopedia of Ukraine - Pylyp Orlyk

At the end of the eighteenth century, a nationalist movement known as the Ukrainian Renaissance emerged. This movement was significantly influenced by writers, socio-cultural figures, and scientists. Notable contributors included I. Kotlyarevsky, P. Kulish, M. Kostomarov, I. Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, and M. Hrushevsky12.

A special mention should be made of Taras Shevchenko, a Ukrainian writer, genius, and prophet. His importance to Ukrainians is underscored by the existence of approximately 1,100 memorials dedicated to him worldwide3.

1: Ukrainian National Revival - Encyclopedia of Ukraine 2: Ukraine’s Executed Renaissance - Euromaidan Press 3: Taras Shevchenko - Britannica

Following the February Revolution and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ukraine declared its independence on January 22, 1918, establishing the Ukrainian People’s Republic1. After the November 1918 uprising, the People’s Republic of Western Ukraine was formed in the territories of Austria-Hungary. On January 22, 1919, the two republics united into a single state, although this union was short-lived due to external aggression2.

In 1922, most of Ukraine was incorporated into the USSR, leading to forced collectivization, mass repression, and the destruction of the national intelligentsia3. The artificial famine of 1932-1933, known as the Holodomor, resulted in the deaths of between 7 and 10 million people, or about a quarter of Ukraine’s population at the time45.

During the war years, several attempts were made to restore Ukraine’s independence, but these efforts ultimately failed6.

1: Ukrainian People’s Republic - Wikipedia 2: West Ukrainian People’s Republic - Wikipedia 3: Ukraine’s Great Famine memories fuel resentment of Kremlin - BBC News 4: Holodomor | Facts, Definition, & Death Toll | Britannica 5: How Joseph Stalin Starved Millions in the Ukrainian Famine | HISTORY 6: Follow Ukraine’s 30-year struggle for independence with this visual timeline - National Geographic

After the Second World War, Ukraine became one of the founding members of the United Nations in 19451. The post-war period saw the final shaping of the country’s current territory.

On August 24, 1991, Ukraine declared its independence from the Soviet Union, marking the beginning of a new period of statehood2. Ukraine gradually began to build a democratic political system and integrate into the world economy. The professionalism of Ukrainian peacekeepers has been widely praised in various crisis regions3.

Diplomatic relations with Estonia were established on January 4, 19924. Ukraine established diplomatic relations with Latvia on February 12, 19925 and with Finland on February 26, 19926.

1: Ukraine and the United Nations - UN 2: Declaration of Independence of Ukraine - KyivPost 3: Ukrainian Peacekeepers - Ukrinform 4: Ukraine-Estonia Relations - Välisministeerium. 5: Latvia and Ukraine diplomatic relations 6: Finland–Ukraine relations - Wikipedia

Ukraine is a large country with diverse regions, each with its own identity and historical narrative. 

There are Ukrainian-speaking Ukrainians, Russian-speaking Ukrainians, and Russian-speaking Russians, with fewer Ukrainian-speaking Russians. Some individuals identify their nationality based on their passport rather than cultural or linguistic ties12.

The prestige of the Ukrainian language has risen significantly in recent years, reflecting a broader movement towards strengthening national identity23.

Attitudes towards historical events, such as the Soviet era, vary across regions and are often shaped by dominant narratives. For example, Russian propaganda in the Russian media can influence perceptions, particularly in Eastern and Southern Ukraine, where there may be a more favorable view of the Soviet past45. In contrast, Western Ukraine generally has a more critical perspective on these historical events67. These differences are also reflected in attitudes towards the Russian and Ukrainian languages.

1: Competing identities of the past and future in Russia and Ukraine 2: Roots of the Resistance: Understanding National Identity in Ukraine 3: Regionalism in Ukraine: Historic Evolution, Regional Claim 4: Ukrainian National Identity: The “Other Ukraine” 5: Exploring Contemporary Socio-Cultural Shifts in Ukraine and Their Impact 6: Perceptions of the war in Ukraine: how the Russian propaganda works outside the west 7: Ukraine: At the Forefront of Russian Propaganda Aggression 

History of Faith in Ukraine

Christianity was officially adopted in 988 under Prince Volodymyr the Great. Following the Great Schism in 1054, the Ukrainian Christian Church remained under the influence of the Patriarch of Constantinople, aligning with the Orthodox Church. However, ties with Rome were not completely severed. The loss of independence, the fall of Constantinople, and the threat of forced Catholicization by the Poles placed the Ukrainian Church in a challenging position.

In the late 16th century, a decision was made to unite with the Papacy of Rome while preserving the traditional Byzantine rite and the Church's distinct identity, leading to the creation of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. However, this move was unpopular among the people and sparked religious conflicts, eventually leading Cossack leaders to restore Orthodoxy in Ukrainian territories. As a result, Ukrainians have historically identified as either Greek Catholic or Orthodox.

According to international social surveys (ISSP), 90% of Ukrainians consider themselves religious. Since independence, there has been a religious revival, with old churches being restored, new ones being built, and a steady increase in the number of congregations. Significant attention is also being given to religious education.

Sources: (1) Christianity in Ukraine - Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ukrainian-Orthodox-Church. (2) Union of Brest - Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Union-of-Brest-Litovsk. (3) Ukrainian, Russian church split reflects political importance of Orthodox Christianity | Pew Research Center. (4) Mapping the Religious Landscape of Ukraine By Denys Brylov, Tetiana Kalenychenko, and Andrii Kryshtal. pw_193-mapping_religious_landscape_ukraine.pdf (usip.org) 

Ukraine

• National Plants: The willow and the lodgepole willow are significant. A Ukrainian proverb states, “There is no Ukraine without willow and lodgepole willow.” Historically, lodgepole trees were planted on the graves of Cossacks as a sign of love and remembrance. The willow symbolizes the cosmos, the awakening of nature, and spring. In Ukrainian folk poetry, it represents the beauty of a maiden.

• Music: The song “Oh, the Red Viburnum in the Meadow” (Ukrainian: Ой у лузі червона калина) became viral on social media. Pink Floyd’s “Hey Hey Rise Up” features Andriy Khlyvnyuk of Boombox.

• Embroidered Towels: Brides tie embroidered towels around their groomsmen (the groom’s messengers). Many Ukrainian homes still hang these towels over icons and portraits of relatives.

• Pysanka: These are eggs decorated with multicolored patterns, especially during Easter. The patterns have symbolic meanings: the tree symbolizes life, and the circle represents the sun. Pysankas are consecrated in church at Easter and then given as gifts to relatives, acquaintances, and loved ones.

Sources: (1) Symbols of Ukrainian people - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Ukrainian_people. (2) National symbols of Ukraine - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_symbols_of_Ukraine. (3) Culture of Estonia - history, people, clothing, traditions, women .... https://www.everyculture.com/Cr-Ga/Estonia.html. (4) Exploring Ukraine's National Symbols and Meanings. https://promova.com/blog/ukraines-national-symbols-and-meanings. (5) The story behind 2 top Ukrainian symbols: National flag and ... - KyivPost. https://www.kyivpost.com/post/7015. (6) Symbols of Ukrainian people.  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Ukrainian_people.

Estonia

• National Plants: Estonia’s national tree is the oak, which symbolizes strength and endurance1. The national flower is the cornflower, representing the beauty of the Estonian countryside1. 

• Music and Poetry: Estonia is renowned for its Song Festival, a massive choral event held every five years in Tallinn. This festival is a significant part of Estonian culture and national identity2. Estonia’s national epic is “Kalevipoeg”.

• Embroidered Items: Estonia has a tradition of folk costumes, which often feature intricate embroidery. These costumes are worn during national celebrations and festivals3.

• Decorative Items: Estonia has a tradition of crafting and decorating wooden items, such as spoons and bowls, which are often given as gifts. These items are decorated with traditional patterns and symbols3.

These symbols and traditions reflect the rich cultural heritage and national pride of Estonia, much like those of Ukraine.

Sources: 1: Estonia National Symbols  2: Estonian Song Festival 3: National symbols of Estonia - Wikipedia

Father ANATOLI LJUTJUK
Ukrainian Church in Estonia and Ukrainian Cultural Centre

Anatoli has been living in Estonia for many years and is a prominent figure in uniting Ukrainians and Estonians. He is completely honest when he says he prefers Ukrainian food to Estonian food. "But I do like rhubarb kisses with semolina pudding," he adds. Of course, he has eaten Mulgi porridge (a dish from the Mulgi region in Estonia) — he doesn’t mind when someone offers it to him — but he doesn’t tend to make it himself and wouldn’t order it specially. Just as Estonians value black bread, kama, cabbage soup, and blood sausage, Anatoli could never give up kuliš, borscht, varenyky, or poppy seed strudel.

According to Anatoli, there are traditions that must be followed when making the national dish: kulish must be made by at least two or three men, it must be stirred in a clockwise direction, and herbs are added by women because they have a more sensitive sense of taste. He cannot recall where these customs originated. "This food comes from the Cossacks of Zaporizhia. It was always the case that one person cooked over the campfire while the others around him taught how. Maybe that’s why it’s a custom for several people to prepare it," Anatoli laughs. These customs are respected.

Salt and green herbs are traditionally added by women, while the men handle the meat. Over time, this custom has endured. Even today, kulish is still prepared for large parties, weddings, and even just for dinner for large families. It is usually cooked outdoors — on the chopping block — but in the absence of a chopping block, it can also be made on the stove.

In Anatoli’s family, it is also a tradition that the head of the family takes the first meal, followed by the wife, and then the children. "For Ukrainians, food is not just about eating; it’s a blend of food, customs, sociality, and respect. We may read recipes in a cookbook, but in the end, we always call our mother, aunt, grandmother, or someone else to ask for the right tips — but we don’t share these instructions with strangers," he explains.

BOGDAN LJUTJUK
Ukrainian Cultural Centre in Estonia

For Ukrainians, the most important holidays are Easter and Christmas, with Easter holding a slightly higher significance. (For Estonians, Christmas is more important.)

Easter

The greatest cause for joy remains the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. However, records indicate that Ukrainians celebrated a similar spring festival as early as pagan times, known as Velikden, which was considered a holy day dedicated to the sun, according to Einike Sooväli, head of integration and social programs at the Open Air Museum.

The fact that Jesus rose from the dead three days after his crucifixion is proof of his divine nature. Easter is preceded by the longest fast of the year, the Great Lent, during which food is scarce, and all feasting and worldly pleasures are forbidden.

For Orthodox Ukrainians, preparations for the Great Feast Day begin with Passion Week (also called Holy Week), which starts after Palm Sunday. For six days, people contemplate the Passion of the Son of God, engage in prayer, observe strict fasting, and attend church services.

Christmas

This year marks the first time Ukrainians are celebrating Christmas on December 24th. "This is a significant change," said Ljutjuk. "There will likely be a double celebration, but I believe the transition is underway."

According to Ljutjuk, the Christmas flower and the fertility symbol, the didukh (дiдух: grandfather's soul), a wheat bundle brought into the home by the head of household and his son after the first star appears and the animals are fed, are essential decorations. The bundle is placed on the table near the icons or in a corner.

Traditionally, there are twelve dishes on the Ukrainian Christmas table. "The most important of these is kutya, a dish made from wheat, poppy seeds, honey, and walnuts, with many variations," Ljutjuk explained. "It is customary to eat three spoonfuls of kutya before partaking of other foods," he emphasized. Prayers are recited before the meal, followed by a tradition where the host tosses a spoonful of kutya onto the ceiling. If the kutya adheres, it is believed to foretell a prosperous year.

1. Identifying Gaps:

   • Read the case study carefully and identify where comparisons between Ukrainian and Estonian cultural elements are lacking. Highlight specific areas where more information is needed to draw meaningful comparisons between the two cultures.

2. Research and Comparison:

   • For each gap you identified, conduct online research to find comparable traditions, symbols, or cultural practices in Estonia (or Latvia, or Finland) that parallel those in Ukraine. How do these traditions differ or align with each other?

   • How might understanding these similarities and differences help someone from Ukraine feel more at home in Estonia, Latvia, or Finland?

3. Cultural Integration Reflection:

   • Consider how practicing and learning about the host country's cultural traditions, such as participating in local festivals or adopting national symbols, could assist Ukrainian refugees in integrating into their new community. What specific cultural elements could be particularly helpful for fostering a sense of belonging?

4. Application in Daily Life:

   • Choose one Ukrainian cultural practice mentioned in the case study (e.g., Pysanka, embroidered towels) and find a similar practice in Estonia, Latvia, or Finland. Reflect on how learning and practicing this tradition in the host country could serve as a bridge between the cultures.

   • How can schools, community centers, or local organizations use this information to create programs that support cultural exchange and integration for refugees?

5. Developing Cultural Sensitivity:

   • How can knowledge of both the similarities and differences between Ukrainian and Estonian/Latvian/Finnish traditions enhance cultural sensitivity and understanding in the host country’s population? How might this awareness contribute to more effective integration strategies?